The omega-3 fatty acids effects on cardiovascular health were proved by large of clinical evidence. But can omega-3 reduces mortality ratio of patients who experienced myocardial infraction?

In 2002, Marchioli and colleagues studied on 11.323 patients who survived after myocardial infraction. All subjects were randomly assigned into two groups:

- Group 1: supplemented 1 g omega-3 per day

- Group 2: no treatment

Results:

- After 6 months of treatment, the blood triglyceride level of group 1 was 155,1 mg/l, lower than group 2 (162,6 mg/l)

- Total mortality of group 1 was significantly lowered 41% than group 2 after 3 month of treatment. The risk of mortality continue reduced after 4 months (53% lower than in the control group)

Marchioll et al concluded that the early effect of low dose (1g per day) of omega-3 fatty acids could reduce total mortality risk on patients who went through myocardial infraction.

Marchioli et al, 2002. Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infraction. Circulation, 105: 1897-1903

Vitamin K is an essential cofactor for MGP, a vitamin K-dependent protein. Without vitamin K2, MGP remains in inactive form. So that, calcium ion is not bound to MGP, accumulates into blood vessel walls and causes vascular calcification.

A study of Johanna and colleagues published in 2004 which usually known as The Rotterdam Study investigated role of vitamin K2 in vascular health.  Dietary of  4807 men and women at 50 years old and over were analyzed carefully in this survey. All of them were not have any history of myocardial infraction at the baseline. According to dietary data, researchers divided 4807 subjects into 3 groups:

-          Group 1: menaquinone intake below 200 mcg per day

-          Group 2: menaquinone intake from 200 mcg to 278 mcg per day

-          Group 3: menaquinone intake upper 278 mcg per day

After approximate 10 years (from 1990 to 2000), the risk of coronary heart disease of subjects in three groups were significantly different.

-          The risk of coronary heart disease of subjects in group 3 lower 57% than in group 1.

-          The risk of coronary heart disease of subjects in group 2 lower 27% than in group 1.

-          The mortality of group 3 lower 26% than group 1

-          The mortality of group 2 lower 9% than group 1

The results of this study indicates that supplement menaquinone could reduces the risk of coronary heart disease in middle ages.

Johanna M.G. et al, 2004. Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: the Rotterdam study. Journal of Nutrition, 134: 3100-3105

Vitamin D and vitamin K are fatty soluble vitamins that are essential for various physiological functions.

According to report of epidemiological survey of American National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2000-2004, vitamin D insufficiency has been correlated with greater mortality from cardiovascular disease and stroke. They found out subjects whose 25(OH)D3 serum concentration below  20 ng/ml had the higher risk for cardiovascular diseases.

Giovannucci et al (2010)analyzed data on 18.225 men  and found that individuals whose 25(OH)D3 serum concentration below 15 ng/ml had the risk of myocardial infraction 2,4 fold higher than those above 30 ng/ml.

Vitamin K was known as an essential factor for activating coagulation protein in blood. In past decade, many basic and clinical studies investigated various physiological functions of vitamin K. Nowadays,  scientists proved vitamin K is not only important for preventing hemorrhage but also necessary for inhibiting vascular calcification.

The Rotterdam Study followed 4,807 men and women over 50 years old for 7-10 years. Scientists investigated the high vitamin K2 level intake could reduce risk of mortality cause by coronary heart diseases and coronary heart diseases mortality ratio.

In the past, vitamin D usually known as an important factor for bone formation and prevention osteoporosis. Vitamin K was reputedly the nutrient that essential for blood clotting. In recent years, both vitamin D and vitamin K have found that are necessary for regulation cardiovascular health.

Parris M.K., 2010. Vitamin D and K as pleiotropic nutrients: clinical importance to the skeletal and cardiovascular systems and preliminary evidence for synergy. Alternative Medicine Review, 15 (3): 199-222

There are approximate 100 million men worldwide affects by erectile dysfunction. According New York Heart Association, 40% of congestive heart failure patients had complete erectile dysfunction and another 40% had mild or moderate erectile dysfunction.

Erectile function is a complex process that requires the combination of vascular system, neurologic factors, hormones and psychological factors. So that, which diseases effects on arterial and venous system could effect on erectile function.  A study researched on 3250 men at 26-83 years old who were not erectile dysfunction at the baseline. They were examined total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol blood levels and followed symptoms of erectile dysfunction. This study showed that the risk of erectile dysfunction whose total cholesterol level above 240 mg/dl was higher 1.83 folds than whose below 180 mg/dl. Report of Massachusetts Male Aging Study from 1987 to 1989 found that the increasing of cholesterol and fats intake collated with the development of erectile dysfunction. Scientists said that high blood cholesterol levels is always associated with development of cardiovascular atherosclerosis. That causes the blood vessel walls less elastic and the atherosclerotic plaques reduces the blood flow to the penile.

Shane et al, 2004. Erectile dysfunction and cardiovascular disease. Mayo Clin Proc, 79: 782-794

In the past, vitamin D usually known as an important factor for bone formation and prevention osteoporosis. Nowadays, it was investigated that is necessary for cardiovascular health at all life stages.

Report of the Health Professionals Follow-up Study and the Nurses Health Study showed that 25(OH)D3 serum concentration and blood pressure has a relation. They found that individuals who had 25(OH)D3 serum concentration below 15 ng/ml had the risk for incident hypertension 3.18 folds compared with those had upper 30 ng/ml.

The NHANES III also reported the 25(OH)D3 serum concentration increasing was associated with the reduction in systolic blood pressure. They found that the systolic blood pressure reduced 6 mmHg when 25(OH)D3 serum concentration increased from 20 ng/ml to 60 ng/ml.

Although the mechanism how vitamin D regulates blood pressure is not clear, clinical evidences proved that this is an essential vitamin for cardiovascular health.

Parris M.K., 2010. Vitamin D and K as pleiotropic nutrients: clinical importance to the skeletal and cardiovascular systems and preliminary evidence for synergy. Alternative Medicine Review, 15 (3): 199-222

The review of Karlos et al (2008) which listed positive effects of Spirulina on human health based on various clinical reports. Scientists found that Spirulina not only supplying essential minerals, vitamins and amino acids for our body but also improving immune system and protecting cardiovascular system.

According to Nakaya et al (1988), Spirulina could lowering serum LDL-cholesterol levels. They studied on 15 subjects who were supplemented 4.2 g Spirulina per day. After 8 weeks, the serum LDL-cholesterol levels of those were lower than the baseline.

In 1996, Ramamoorthy and Premakamari took a study about Spirulina effects on ischemic heart disease patients. They investigated Spirulina took an significant reduction in total blood cholesterol levels, LDL-cholesterol levels and triglyceride levels. It also increased HDL-cholesterol levels.

Moreover, Mani et al (2000) carried out an clinical study about Spirulina effects on 15 diabetic patient. They found that the LDL-cholesterol: HDL-cholesterol ratio of who was gave Spirulina was decreased.

Although all clinical studies was small and need to be researched more, Karlos highly appreciated the role of Spirulina in combating hyperlipidaemia.

Karkos P.D. et al (2008). Spirulina in clinical practice: evidence-based human applications. Hindawi Publishing Cooparation, 2011

For several years, cocoa and chocolate have recommended for their health benefits. Nowadays, epidemiological and clinical reports showed that cocoa and chocolate could protect blood vessels, produce some aphrodisiac and mood-lifting effects.

Report of Brian et al which published on Archives of Internal Medicine in 2006 found that cocoa intake benefits for lowering blood pressure and reduction total cardiovascular mortality. This study followed cocoa intake, blood pressure and total cardiovascular mortality of 470 elderly men during 15 years. Researchers investigated elderly men who consumed highest cocoa (above 2.25 g per day) was reduced 42% risk of cardiovascular mortality compared with other consumed lowest (below 0.5 g per day). Furthermore, they also showed that the cocoa intake and the blood pressure are positive relationship. The systolic pressure and the diastolic pressure of highest cocoa consumption group (above 2.30 g per day) was lower than the lowest cocoa consumption (below 0.36 g per day).

The mechanism was indicated that cocoa is a rich source of flavan-3-ols, which plays important roles in reduction blood pressure and improvement the endothelial function. The procyanidins in cocoa increases endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity in endothelial cells, so they improves the flexibility of blood vessels. In addition, cocoa includes antioxidants that protects LDL-cholesterol from oxidation, benefits for hyperlipidemia patients.